2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
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 | This article documents a current disaster. Information regarding it may change rapidly as it progresses. Although this article is updated frequently, it may not reflect the most current information about this disaster for all areas. |
 An aerial view of tsunami damage in the Tōhoku region | |
   Tokyo Sendai Map showing the epicenter of the earthquake | |
| Date | 14:46:23, 11 March 2011 (+09:00) |
|---|---|
| Duration | 6 minutes[1] |
| Magnitude | 9.0 Mw[2][3] |
| Depth | 32 km (19.9 mi) |
| Epicenter location | 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°ECoordinates: 38°19′19″N 142°22′08″E / 38.322°N 142.369°E |
| Type | Megathrust earthquake |
| Countries or regions affected | Japan (primary) Pacific Rim (tsunami) |
| Total damage | Flooding, landslides, fires, building and infrastructure damage, nuclear incidents |
| Peak ground acceleration | 2.99 g |
| Tsunami | Yes |
| Landslides | Yes |
| Foreshocks | 7+ (4+ above 6.0 MW) |
| Aftershocks | 647+ (44+ above 6.0 MW) |
| Casualties | 8,805 deaths,[4][5] 2,628 injured,[4][5] 12,664 people missing[4][5] (all figures preliminary) |
The earthquake triggered extremely destructive tsunami waves of up to 10 meters (33 ft) that struck Japan minutes after the quake, in some cases traveling up to 10 km (6 mi) inland,[10] with smaller waves reaching many other countries after several hours. Tsunami warnings were issued and evacuations ordered along Japan's Pacific coast and at least 20 other countries, including the entire Pacific coast of North America and South America.[11][12][13]
The Japanese National Police Agency has officially confirmed 8,805 deaths,[4][5] 2,628 injured,[4][5] and 12,664 people missing[4][5] across eighteen prefectures, as well as over 125,000 buildings damaged or destroyed.[4][5] The earthquake and tsunami caused extensive and severe structural damage in Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[10][14] Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.[15] Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings. On 18 March, the International Atomic Energy Agency described the crisis as "extremely serious."[16] Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6 mi) radius of the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated.
Estimates of the Tōhoku earthquake's magnitude make it the most powerful known earthquake to hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900.[7][17][18] Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[19] The earthquake moved Honshu 2.4 m (7.9 ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by almost 10 cm (3.9 in).[20][21] Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6 billion.[22] On March 21, the World Bank estimated damage between $122 billion and $235 billion.[23] The Bank of Japan offered ¥15 trillion (US$183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions.[24]
Earthquake
One minute prior to the effects of the earthquake being felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system, which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of an impending earthquake to millions. This was possible because the damaging seismic S-waves, traveling at 4 km (2.5 mi) per second, took about 90 seconds to travel the 373 km (232 mi) to Tokyo. The early warning is believed by the JMA to have saved many lives.[29][30]
The quake registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture.[41] Three other prefectures—Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi—recorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a lower 6, recording an upper 5 in Tokyo.
Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) recorded a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g (29.33 m/s²).[42][fn 2]
Energy
This earthquake released a surface energy (Me) of 1.9±0.5×1017 joules,[45] dissipated as shaking and tsunamic energy, which is nearly double that of the 9.1-magnitude 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people, and flung the 2,600 ton Apung 1 ship 2 to 3 km (1.2 to 1.9 mi) inland. "If we could only harness the [surface] energy from this earthquake, it would power [a] city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year," McNutt said in an interview.[28] The total energy released, also known as the seismic moment (M0), was more than 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at 3.9×1022 joules,[46] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. This is equivalent to 9.32 teratons of TNT, or approximately 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima bomb.Geophysical impact
The quake moved portions of northeast Japan by as much as 2.4 meters (7.9 ft) closer to North America,[20][21] making portions of Japan's landmass "wider than before," according to geophysicist Ross Stein.[21] Portions of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[21] Stein also noted that a 400-kilometer (250 mi) stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 m (2.0 ft), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land.[21] The Pacific plate itself may have moved westwards by up to 20 m (66 ft), though the actual displacement will have diminished with greater distance from the site of the fault.[47] Other estimates put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m (130 ft), covering an area some 300 to 400 km (190 to 250 mi) long by 100 km (62 mi) wide. If confirmed, this would be one of the largest recorded fault movements to have been associated with an earthquake.[48]
Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted two days after the earthquake. The volcano had erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[52] In Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 m (1.6 ft).[53]
Tsunami
Japan
The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale; it rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3 m (9.8 ft) high.[57] The actual height predicted varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 10 m (33 ft) high.[58] The earthquake took place at 14:46 JST around 70 km (43 mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas further north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[59][60] Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture,[61][62] with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[63][64] The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[65] A 4-meter (13 ft)-high tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture.[66] Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[67]Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. There were reports of "whole towns gone" from tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in Minamisanriku;[68] one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.[69]
On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 meters (9.8 ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[84]
- 15:12 JST – Iwate Kamaishi-oki – 6.8 m (22 ft)
- 15:15 JST – Ōfunato – 3.2 m (10 ft) or higher
- 15:20 JST – Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa – 3.3 m (11 ft) or higher
- 15:21 JST – Miyako – 4.0 m (13.1 ft) or higher
- 15:21 JST – Kamaishi – 4.1 m (13 ft) or higher
- 15:44 JST – Erimo-cho Shoya – 3.5 m (11 ft)
- 15:50 JST – Sōma – 7.3 m (24 ft) or higher
- 16:52 JST – Ōarai – 4.2 m (14 ft)
These readings were obtained from recording stations maintained by the JMA around the coastline of Japan. Many areas were also affected by tsunamis of 1 to 3 meters (3.3 to 9.8 ft) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites." The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunamis.[87][88]
Elsewhere across the Pacific
Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) issued tsunami watches and warnings for locations in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean.[89][90] The United States West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas of most of California, all of Oregon, and the western part of Alaska, and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all of Washington and British Columbia, Canada.[91][92] In California and Oregon, up to 8 ft (2.4 m) high tsunami surges hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10 million of damage.[93][94] Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at $3 million, with damage to private property estimated at tens of millions of dollars.[95] Surges of up to 1 m (3.3 ft) hit Vancouver Island in Canada.[92]
Some other South Pacific countries, including Tonga and New Zealand, and U.S. territories American Samoa and Guam, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not report any major damage.[103] Some houses along the coast in Jayapura, Indonesia were destroyed.[104] Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[97] Russia evacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands.[105] In the Philippines, waves up to 0.5 m (1.6 ft) high hit the eastern seaboard of the country. It was reported that a 5 ft (1.5 m) high wave completely submerged Midway Atoll's reef inlets and Spit Island, killing more than 110,000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.[106]
Casualties
The bottom MODIS satellite image was taken on 26 February, and the top on 13 March, after the tsunami. Sendai is in the upper third of both (the red circle to its immediate north-east marks a fire). Scale bar is 10 km (6.2 mi).
Prefectural officials and the Kyodo News Agency, quoting local officials, said that 9,500 people from Minamisanriku in Miyagi Prefecture—about a half of the town's population—were unaccounted for.[108] NHK has reported that the death toll in Iwate Prefecture alone may reach 10,000.[63]
Save the Children reports that as many as 100,000 children have been uprooted from their homes, some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day.[109]
On 14 March, Kyodo News Agency reported that some 2,000 bodies were found on two shores in Miyagi Prefecture.[110]
It was reported that four passenger trains containing an unknown number of passengers disappeared in a coastal area during the tsunami.[111] One of the trains, on the Senseki Line, was found derailed in the morning; all passengers were rescued by a police helicopter.[112] Der Spiegel later reported that five missing trains in Miyagi Prefecture had been found with all passengers safe, although this information could not be confirmed locally.[113]
By 9:30 UTC on 11 March, Google Person Finder, which was previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and their locations.[114][115] The Next of Kin Registry (NOKR) is assisting the Japanese government in locating next of kin for those missing or deceased.[116]
One man was killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea.[117] Near Crescent City, California, a 25-year-old man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami was swept out to sea and confirmed dead.[118]
Damage and effects
Nuclear power plants
Further information: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents
The Fukushima I, Fukushima II, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors, were automatically shut down following the earthquake.[123] Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat for several days after a plant has been shut down. The cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators, as in the case of Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant.[124] At Fukushima I and II tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems, leading to severe problems including two large explosions at Fukushima I and leakage of radiation. Over 200,000 people have been evacuated.[125] On 16 March, it was reported that favorable winds were carrying radioactive particles from the incidents out to sea, mitigating some of the negative effects.[126] Further into the crisis, helicopters were used to dump water on the Fukushima I plant to further attempt to cool the reactors.[127]Europe's energy commissioner Guenther Oettinger, in remarks to the European Parliament on 15 March, called the nuclear disaster an "apocalypse", saying that the word was particularly well chosen, and that Tokyo had almost lost control of events at the Fukushima power plant.[128]
Fukushima I and II Nuclear Power Plants
Main articles: Fukushima I nuclear accidents and Timeline of the Fukushima nuclear accidents
Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents.[129][130] Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency have reported that radiation levels inside the plant are up to 1,000 times normal levels,[131] and that radiation levels outside the plant are up to 8 times normal levels.[132] Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima II nuclear power plant about 11 km (7 mi) south.[133] This brings the total number of problematic reactors to six.[134]On 12 March, a large explosion, thought to be caused by the buildup of hydrogen gas, blew away the roof and outer walls of the Reactor 1 building, releasing a large cloud of dust and vapor, but the reactor itself was not damaged in the explosion.[135][136][137] A BBC journalist reported being stopped 60 kilometers (37 mi) from the blast site by police.[135]
On Sunday, 13 March, Japanese authorities admitted that a partial nuclear meltdown could be occurring in Reactors 1 and 3.[138] On 12 March at 01:17 JST (16:17 GMT), the Japan Atomic Energy Agency announced that it was rating the Fukushima accident at 4 (accident with local consequences) on the 0–7 International Nuclear Event Scale (INES),[139] below the Three Mile Island accident in seriousness.[140] This has been questioned by the French ASN nuclear safety authority. They say the accident can be classed as a 5 or 6, which would be comparable to or worse than the Three Mile Island accident.[141] On 18 March, Japan's nuclear safety agency raised the severity level of the crisis from 4 to 5.[142]
Additionally, it was reported on 14 March at 07:00 EDT that the fuel rods of Reactor 2 at the Fukushima I plant were now fully exposed, and a meltdown of the fuel rods, with the risk of damage to the reactor vessel and a possible radioactive leak, could not be ruled out.[153] As of 14 March 2011[update], about 160 people have been exposed to dangerous radiation levels near the power stations. One plant employee was killed while operating a crane, eight others have been injured.[154] An additional eleven employees were injured when the Reactor 3 building exploded.[155] Several people received some radiation doses.[156]
A US Navy relief group moved from the immediate area after its helicopters detected low-level radiation while returning to their aircraft carrier from a search and rescue mission, 160 km (99 mi) offshore. The flight absorbed the equivalent amount of earthbound background radiation for a month, in the span of about an hour.[162][163]
On 15 March, the radiation level in Tokyo reached 20 times the normal level. The highest level in the Kantō region was 40 times the normal level in Saitama at 11:00 JST but then receded to ten times the normal level. Local officials have assured the public that this is not a threat to human health.[164][165]
It was reported that radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in Fukushima, Toshigi, Gunma, Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Niigata, and radioactive cesium in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi and Gunma.[169][170][171]
Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant
A fire from the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake was reported by Kyodo News.[124][172] The blaze was in a building housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant's reactor,[129] and was soon extinguished.[173]On 13 March the lowest-level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant by TEPCO, as radioactivity readings temporarily[174] exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant.[175][176] TEPCO stated this was due to radiation from the Fukushima I nuclear accidents and not from the Onagawa plant itself.[177]
Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant
The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically.[123] On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working;[178] however, the Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump sustaining the cooling system, but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.[179]Ports
Dam failure
The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured,[183] causing flooding and washing away homes.[184] Eight people were missing and four bodies were discovered by the morning.[185][186][187] Reportedly, some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it completely failed.[188] On 12 March, 252 dams were inspected and it was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their crests. The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non-serious slope failure. All damaged dams are functioning with no problems. Four dams within the quake area were unreachable. When the roads clear, experts will be dispatched to conduct further investigations.[189]Water
In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies.[15][190] By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.[191]Electricity
According to Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP), around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity.[192] Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline after the earthquake. Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake.[193] The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that it can currently provide only about 30 GW. This is because 40 percent of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area is now supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures.[194] The reactors at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and have sustained major damage related to the earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Rolling blackouts of three hours are expected to last until the end of April and will affect the Tokyo, Kanagawa, Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures.[195] Voluntary reduced electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts.[196] By 21 March 2011, the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242,927.[191]Tōhoku Electric Power cannot currently provide the Kanto region with additional power, because TEP's power plants were also damaged in the earthquake. Kansai Electric Power Company (Kepco) cannot share electricity, because its system operates at 60 hertz, whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; this is due to early industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified national power grid.[197] Two substations, one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture, can convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and Tōhoku, but their capacity to do so is limited to 1 GW. With the damage to so many power plants, it could be years before electricity productions levels in eastern Japan return to pre-quake levels.[198]
Oil, gas and coal
An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300,000 barrels per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.[204][205]
The city-owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.[206]
Three coal bulk carrier ships in Japanese ports were damaged by the tsunami.[207]
Transport
Japan's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged.[208] All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city.[209] In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed.[210] Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day-12 March.[211] Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11–12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.[212]
Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day.[214] Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four-car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning.[215]
There had been no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended.[182] The Tōkaidō Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March; however, the Tōhoku Shinkansen remained suspended, with visible damage to electrical poles and elevated spans, and the state of the line in harder-hit areas still difficult to ascertain.[216] Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed on 15 March, with one round-trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu-Shiobara.[217]
The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at 10–20 minute intervals, rather than the usual 3–5 minute intervals, operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down others; notably, the Tokaido Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sobu Main Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day.[219] This led to near-paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home. Railway operators gradually increased capacity over the next few days, until running at approximately 80% capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of the passenger congestion.
Telecommunications
Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area.[220] Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions; these systems were able to reroute around affected segments onto redundant links.[221][222] Within Japan, only a few websites were initially unreachable.[223] Several Wi-Fi hotspot providers have reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks.[223]Space center
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba Space Center in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Tsukuba Space Center has been shut down, with some damage reported. The Tsukuba Space Center houses a control room for part of the International Space Station.[224][225]Sports
The 2011 World Figure Skating Championships were scheduled to take place from 21–27 March at the Yoyogi National Gymnasium in Tokyo but the International Skating Union decided on 14 March to postpone the event, after the German team announced that it would follow recommendations not to travel to Japan.[226] International Skating Union President Ottavio Cinquanta published a statement on the federation website on 15 March, confirming the cancellation of the event. However, the possibility of re-scheduling remains, said the ISU chief. "The postponement of the event or alternatively the final cancellation is under evaluation."[227]Also on hold is the ISU Figure Skating World Team Trophy, scheduled for Yokohama on 14–17 April. The ISU is waiting for guidance from Japanese authorities on whether the skating championships can be held. "It is understood that a postponement of the above-mentioned World Championships as well as the holding of the ISU World Team Trophy is subject to the confirmation by the competent Japanese authorities that the situation is back to normal conditions allowing the safe conduct of major ISU sports Events in the Tokyo area," says the ISU.[228]
The 2011 Japanese motorcycle Grand Prix, originally scheduled for 24 April, was moved to 2 October.[229][230]
The 2011 Asia League Ice Hockey finals between the Tōhoku Free Blades and Anyang Halla were to begin on 11 March but the five games were canceled.[citation needed] As of 14 March 2011[update], no rescheduled dates were announced.
The Japanese national football team canceled their friendly match with Montenegro scheduled for March 25 in Shizuoka. They are currently scheduled to play New Zealand in Tokyo on March 29, however the Japan Football Association is negotiating to have the game moved to Osaka, much further away from the affected area. "We hope to play New Zealand, which like Japan has also suffered damage from a big earthquake," Japan FA president Junji Ogura said in a statement.[231]
The ITF tennis tournament, Japan Future 1, was to take place on Nishitama District, Tokyo from 14-20 March and was cancelled after the qualifying round was completed. The series of four ITF Men’s Circuit Futures tournaments in and around Tokyo, commencing the week of the 14th March 2011 has been cancelled.
Economic impact
The earthquake and tsunami have had significant immediate impacts on businesses such as Toyota, Nissan and Honda, which completely suspended auto production until 14 March. Nippon Steel Corporation also suspended production, Toyo Tire & Rubber Company and Sumitomo Rubber Industries shuttered their tire and rubber production lines, while GS Yuasa closed its automotive battery production. This was expected to hinder supply availability for automakers.[235] Tokyo Electric Power Company, Toshiba, East Japan Railway Company and Shin-Etsu Chemical were suggested as the most vulnerable companies as a result of the earthquake.[236] Sony also suspended production at all its six plants in the area, while Fuji Heavy Industries discontinued production at most of its factories in the Gunma and the Tochigi Prefectures.[237] Other factories suspending operations include Kirin Holdings, GlaxoSmithKline, Nestlé[238] and Toyota amid power cuts.[239] The factory shutdowns, power cuts and the consequent presumed impact on consumer confidence could hurt the national GDP for several months, although economist Michael Boskin predicts "only minimal impact on the Japanese economy overall."[233][240] Following threats of further nuclear leaks, Blackstone Group LP, Continental AG and Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW) were said to be moving their staff outside Japan.[241]
Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano has said that Japan's government will convene on 13 March to gauge the economic effects of the catastrophe.[249] He also told NHK Television that about 200 billion yen that was remaining from the budget for the concurrent fiscal year that would end on 31 March would be used to fund the immediate recovery efforts. Additional measures could also hurt Japan's public debt (which is already the highest in the world). This additional spending could hurt demand for government bonds.[233]
Some economic analysts consider that, ultimately, the catastrophe will improve Japan's economy, with increased job availability during restoration efforts. An analyst at JPMorgan Chase, citing the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in the San Francisco Bay Area and the Southern California 1994 Northridge earthquake, noted that natural disasters "do eventually boost output." An analyst at Société Générale anticipated that Japan's economy will decline in March but will revive powerfully in subsequent months. After the Kobe earthquake, industrial output dropped 2.6%, but increased by 2.2% the next month, and 1% the following month. Japan's economy then accelerated substantially through the next two years, at more than its former rate.[240] Others are of the opinion that the catastrophe will harm the economy.[250] Some[who?] have argued that those who predict that the reconstruction effort could help Japan's economy have fallen prey to the broken window fallacy.[251]
Global financial impact
Other stock markets around the world were also affected; the German DAX lost 1.2% and fell to 6,978 points within minutes.[255] Hong Kong's Hang Seng index fell by 1.8%, while South Korea's Kospi index slumped by 1.3%.[256] By the end of trading on the day of the earthquake, the MSCI Asia Pacific Index had dropped by 1.8%.[257] Major U.S. stock market indexes rose between 0.5% and 0.7%.[258] Oil prices also dropped as a result of the closure of Japanese refineries, despite the ongoing violence in Libya and expected demonstrations in Saudi Arabia. US crude dropped as low as $99.01 from $100.08 by lunchtime, with Brent Crude falling $2.62 to $112.81.[259] In Hong Kong, Financial Secretary John Tsang warned investors to "take extra care" as the earthquake may have a short term impact on each local stock market.[260]
The share prices of the biggest reinsurance companies Munich Re and Swiss Reinsurance Company fell following the earthquake on speculation that they may face losses "somewhere in the $10 billion range" even after certain costs were absorbed by Japan's primary insurers and the government.[261]
The Japanese yen soared against most of major currencies following the earthquake and reached post-World War II high at 76.25 yen per dollar on speculation Japanese investors would repatriate assets to pay for rebuilding.[262] Since Japan relies heavily on exports the strong yen could damp its economy further. The financial markets instability prompted G7 to hold a conference call on March 17 resulted in agreement on joint forex intervention to sell yen against the dollar.[263] It was the first such a move since 2000.[264]
Peter Bradford, a former member of the United States' Nuclear Regulatory Commission, said that the impact on the nuclear power plant was "obviously a significant setback for the so-called nuclear renaissance. The image of a nuclear power plant blowing up before your eyes on a television screen is a first."[265]
Response in Japan
Government
Evacuation shelters currently are facing a shortage of potable water, food, blankets and bathroom facilities, as the government arranges these necessities to be delivered to where they are needed as soon as possible, from various areas of Japan and abroad.[268] Dropping temperatures due to the disruption in electrical and gas lines caused further problems at shelters.[63] As of 17 March 2011[update], 336,521 people in Japan had been displaced from their homes and were residing elsewhere, including in 2,367 shelters.[269]
A Japanese urban search and rescue team sent to New Zealand following the 2011 Christchurch earthquake was recalled.[270]
Citizens
"The morality of the Japanese society is amazing. Not one mention or incident of looting or violence. Everyone lines up. Wait your turn to enter the store. Store employees are extremely courteous and kind," wrote a Japanese-American friend of Marianne Kushi of NBC.[271] This attitude has been referred to as the Japanese trait of gaman, loosely meaning "patience and perseverance."[272][273][274]
Some people devastated by the quake began, however, to question the government's effort in providing food, clothing, electricity, heat, and phone service. One embittered citizen said, "It's been a week, and there's still been no government help... This is the best they can come up with? What the hell are they doing?" They likened the present condition to that of the 1995 Kobe earthquake, whereupon the government took days to organize relief efforts as opposed to the few hours it took for organized crime groups to distribute blankets and food. The government had promised to hasten relief efforts in the event of a disaster. One citizen said, "The Japanese government should have learned from the Kobe earthquake that they would need help, but they didn't."[277] Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano later said, "In hindsight, we could have moved a little quicker in assessing the situation and coordinating all that information and provided it faster."[278]
Ten days after the quake, reports began to emerge of incidents of looting and theft in quake and tsunami-hit areas. By 20 March 2011, ¥4.9 million in merchandise from stores and ¥5.8 million in cash was reported stolen to the Miyagi Prefectural Police. Witnesses reported thieves stealing cash and bank books from smashed houses, looting goods from stores, and siphoning gas from abandoned or damaged vehicles.[279][280]
International response
Request for assistance
World involvement
Japan received messages of condolence and offers of assistance from a range of international leaders. According to Japan's foreign ministry on 19 March 2011, 128 countries and 33 international organizations had offered assistance to Japan.[191] The EU has also been more than ready to offer its support: "An earthquake powerful enough to make the world wobble on its axis, a massive tsunami, an emergency in nuclear power stations. Any one of these would be a tragedy. Thousands of people have died and this has turned this tragedy into a catastrophe," said Herman van Rompuy, President of the European Council.[283] Twenty Member States have offered assistance through the European Civil Protection Mechanism.[284]
While stepping-up monitoring of radiation levels on its own shores in face of the Fukushima nuclear power plant crisis, China, a major supporter in the relief operations in Japan in spite of its own current earthquake crisis, had officially begun evacuating its citizens from those worst-hit areas in Japan on 15 March 2011.[286] France had also officially begun evacuation of its nationals from the worst-hit areas, dispatching airliners to assist in the evacuation on 16 March 2011.[287][288] Also responding to potential danger of radiation exposure, the government of Austria had relocated its embassy from Tokyo to Osaka some 250 mi (400 km) away.[289]
In many countries, both government and private aid campaigns have been organized to offer money and support to the victims and general populace of Japan. Social buying sites have launched on-line campaigns in which several million dollars were raised for relief organizations working in Japan.[290]
Operation Tomodachi, which means friend in Japanese, was a United States military operation to provide assistance and humanitarian aid to Japan.[291]
Information and support
Media coverage
Japan's national public broadcaster, NHK, and Japan Satellite Television suspended their usual programming to provide ongoing coverage of the situation.[301] Various other nationwide Japanese TV networks also broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the disaster. Ustream Asia broadcast live feeds of NHK, Tokyo Broadcasting System, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, TV Kanagawa, and CNN on the Internet starting on 12 March 2011.[302] YokosoNews, an Internet webcast in Japan, dedicated its broadcast to the latest news gathered from Japanese news stations by translating them in real time to English.[303] The Yomiuri Shimbun reported that the "coordinated relief activities at the disaster sites are expected to deepen the Japan-U.S. alliance."[304]Non-Japanese media, such as CNN, was noted for being more alarmist, exaggerated, and sometimes inaccurate in its coverage of the earthquake's aftermath than the Japanese media. Fox News Channel at one point displayed "Shibuya Eggman" on a graphic of nuclear plants in Japan. Shibuya Eggman is a concert hall in Tokyo. The alarmist and inaccurate reports in foreign media were speculated to have caused greater anxiety and stress in foreign residents of Japan.[305][306]
Scientific and research response
According to the chief scientist for the Multi-Hazards project at the U.S. Geological Survey, the fact that the Tōhoku earthquake took place in Japan—a country with "the best seismic information in the world"—meant that for the first time, data could be collected that would allow modeling of an earthquake of this type and severity in great detail. Andreas Reitbrock, a professor of seismology at the University of Liverpool, agreed, stating, "It gives us, for the first time, the possibility to model in great detail what happened during the rupture of an earthquake."[20]
Seismologists had anticipated that the "big one" would strike the same place as the 1923 Kanto earthquake—in the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo.[308][309] Since 1976, when Katsuhiko Ishibashi said a large earthquake in the Suruga Trough was forthcoming, the government tracked plate movements, in preparation for the so-called Tokai earthquake.[310] Occurring 373 km (232 mi) northeast of Tokyo, the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists, since the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, but was not expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude.[309][310]
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